Every argument — whether in a journal article, a policy document or your own Extended Investigation report — is built from the same fundamental components. Knowing how to identify and work with these elements is essential for both evaluating other people’s arguments and constructing your own.
A claim is an assertion that something is true. Claims are the backbone of any argument — they are the statements an author wants you to accept.
Evidence is the material offered in support of a claim. Its purpose is to give the audience reason to accept the claim.
Types of evidence include:
- Empirical data: Statistics, measurements, experimental results
- Expert testimony: Statements from credentialed authorities
- Case studies: Detailed examples that illustrate a point
- Anecdotal evidence: Personal stories or individual instances (weakest form)
A conclusion is the final claim an argument is trying to establish — the “bottom line” the author wants you to accept after considering all the evidence and reasoning. In a research report, the conclusion responds directly to the research question.
KEY TAKEAWAY: Every well-formed argument has at least one claim, some form of evidence, and a conclusion. Your job as a critical thinker is to identify each of these, then assess whether the reasoning connecting them is valid.
The reasoning in an argument is what links the evidence to the claims and conclusions. It explains why the evidence supports the conclusion. Without explicit reasoning, an argument is merely an assertion with attached data.
Example:
- Claim: Regular exercise improves academic performance.
- Evidence: A 2022 meta-analysis of 40 studies found improved concentration in students who exercised daily.
- Reasoning: Improved concentration is a direct mechanism by which exercise could enhance academic performance, so this finding supports the claim.
- Conclusion: Schools should integrate physical activity into the school day.
Argument mapping is a visual technique for displaying the logical structure of an argument. It helps you:
- Identify which claims are premises and which is the conclusion
- Spot missing steps in the reasoning
- See whether sub-arguments support the main conclusion
A basic map shows claims as boxes with arrows indicating “supports” relationships.
EXAM TIP: In SAC and examination tasks, you may be asked to “identify the conclusion of the argument” or “explain what evidence is used to support the claim.” Always quote specific text from the stimulus rather than paraphrasing loosely.
A useful test: ask yourself “Is this statement being supported by other statements, or is it supporting others?” Conclusions are supported; premises do the supporting. Signal words help:
| Conclusion indicators | Premise indicators |
|---|---|
| therefore, thus, hence, so, consequently | because, since, given that, as, for the reason that |
COMMON MISTAKE: Treating the first or last sentence of a paragraph as automatically being the conclusion. Arguments are not always organised with the conclusion at the end. Use signal words and logical relationships to identify the conclusion, not its position in the text.
When writing your Extended Investigation report, you must make your own reasoning explicit. Don’t just present data and expect the reader to draw the correct conclusion — spell out why the evidence supports your claim. This is what distinguishes a high-scoring report from a descriptive one.
VCAA FOCUS: The written report is assessed on how well you “analyse and evaluate” your research question and conclusions. Examiners look specifically for explicit reasoning connecting evidence to claims — not just well-presented data.
