Formal texts are defined, in part, by their high degree of structural coherence and explicit cohesion. Where informal texts can rely on shared context and implication, formal texts must construct their own scaffolding.
Formal texts use explicit cohesive devices rather than relying on shared context. This explicitness is a defining feature of formal register.
Reference in formal writing is typically clear and unambiguous:
- Anaphoric reference: The committee… It has decided… (pronoun clearly refers to committee)
- Full noun phrase repetition: formal texts sometimes repeat the full noun rather than using a pronoun to avoid ambiguity (The defendant… The defendant’s actions…)
- Demonstrative reference: This evidence…, These findings… (ties current clause to prior material)
- Comparative reference: A larger study would be required, A similar approach was taken… (establishes comparison relationships)
KEY TAKEAWAY: Formal texts minimise ambiguity in reference. Where informal texts can use vague pronouns and assume the listener will follow, formal texts must be unambiguous — especially in legal and scientific contexts where ambiguity has consequences.
Formal written texts use much less ellipsis than informal ones, because they cannot rely on shared context:
- Formal: Students who complete the form will receive their results. (full clauses)
- Informal: Fill it in, you’ll get yours. (ellipsis relying on shared understanding)
Where formal texts do use ellipsis, it is typically in predictable, structured ways:
- Parallel listing: The applicant must provide (a) proof of identity, (b) proof of address, and (c) proof of employment.
Formal texts use a wider range of conjunctions than informal texts, including:
- Additive: moreover, furthermore, in addition to
- Adversative: however, nevertheless, notwithstanding
- Causal: therefore, consequently, as a result
- Temporal: subsequently, prior to, in the interim
These Latinate conjunctions are markers of formal register. Informal texts tend to use and, but, so, because.
EXAM TIP: Formal conjunctions are easy to identify and link to register. When you see moreover or consequently, note that these are formal cohesive ties and explain how they contribute to the text’s logical organisation and formal register.
Formal texts create extended lexical chains through:
- Technical vocabulary: consistent use of field-specific terms creates topic cohesion
- Repetition: deliberate repetition of key terms (rather than pronominally replacing them)
- Synonymy within register: proceed / continue / advance (all formal; avoids repetition while maintaining register)
- Superordinates: the legislation… the Act… the framework… (all referring to the same document at different levels of specificity)
Coherence in formal texts is constructed through explicit structural organisation rather than inferred from shared context.
Formal texts have predictable generic structures that guide reader comprehension:
- Academic essay: introduction → body paragraphs → conclusion
- Business letter: salutation → purpose → body → closing
- Legal judgment: facts → law → reasoning → decision
- Scientific report: abstract → introduction → methodology → results → discussion
These structures create genre-based coherence: a reader familiar with the genre knows where to find each type of information.
Signposting is the discourse feature most distinctive to formal texts. It makes structure explicit:
- This report aims to… (announces purpose)
- Firstly… Secondly… Finally… (enumerates stages)
- As discussed in section 2… (refers to earlier content)
- The following section will address… (previews upcoming content)
- In conclusion… (signals the argumentative close)
Signposting in formal texts compensates for the absence of shared context by making the organisational logic visible to any reader.
COMMON MISTAKE: Students sometimes treat signposting as merely formulaic. In fact, signposting is the primary tool of coherence in formal texts — it is the skeleton that holds the argument together and guides a diverse, unfamiliar audience through complex content.
Formal paragraphs typically follow a topic-sentence structure:
1. Topic sentence: states the paragraph’s main idea
2. Development: evidence, examples, explanation
3. Link: connects back to the thesis or forward to the next paragraph
This explicit paragraph architecture contributes significantly to coherence in formal essays and reports.
APPLICATION: When analysing a formal written text, trace the cohesive devices across it: reference chains, conjunctions and lexical repetition. Then assess the coherence: Does the structure unfold logically? How does signposting guide the reader? This multi-level analysis demonstrates command of both the micro (cohesion) and macro (coherence) levels.
VCAA FOCUS: VCAA Section B (responding to language) tasks often require students to write formal texts. Understanding how formal cohesion and coherence work is not only necessary for analysis — it is directly applicable to your own formal writing in the exam.
